A furor occurred in Manipur in 2016 over the meaning of culture. The then Governor of Manipur, V. Shanmuganathan, dared the scholars of Manipur to send in letters the definition of culture in 100 words, in exchange for a visit to the Raj Bhavan and a cup of tea with the Governor. The scholars of Manipur gave a befitting reply to the Governor. But the question is: was the governor himself capable of writing a definition of culture?
Indeed, unquestionably, culture is so complex. Kroeber and Kluckhohn listed over 164 definitions of culture in 1952. I am quite sure that there are many more unaccounted definitions which they could not find in many untrodden corners of the world. Yet we know that the concept of culture is applicable to myriad aspects of human life and society.
I have put the definitions of culture into 3 categories:-
- E.B. Tyler and Juri Lotman
- UNESCO Definition
- William Sewell’s definition of culture
Among the many definitions of culture, that of E.B. Tylor and Juri Lotman are the most general and all-encompassing. I have mentioned E.B. Tylor because his is the first systematic and before long the most accepted definition of culture. I am recalling Juri Lotman because he is the most vocal representative of the Tartu-Moscow School, that tries to analyze culture in the most scientific way.
- a) E.B. Tyler defined culture as that “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”
- b) Juri Lotman defines culture as “the totality of non-hereditary information acquired, preferred and transmitted by the various groups of human society.”
Next comes the UNESCO definitions. I am mentioning the UNESCO definition because it represents the world’s largest body dealing with cultural matters. The 1982 Mexico Declaration on Cultural Policies by the UNESCO defines culture as the distinct spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features characterizing a society. The UNESCO places emphasis on the preservation of culture for both individuals and societies. The UNESCO is mainly concerned with the protection of heritage sites and monumental arts. However, it is not concerned with the body of ideas and feelings that is the essence of human interaction.
The UNESCO definition, in my opinion is the narrowest in scope. Most scholars and cultural activists of Manipur consciously or unconsciously belong and subscribe to this school.
Now, we come to the third category of the definitions of culture, i.e. Sewell’s definition from among the myriad definitions of culture, W.H. Sewell has chosen these two, i.e. (a) culture as a system of symbols and meanings, and (b) culture as practice.
In 1960s, many prominent scholars adopted the definition of culture as a system of symbols and meanings. However, by the beginning of the 1980s, many scholars, mainly due to the influence of Pierre Bourdieu, began to question the conception of culture in terms of symbols and meanings. As the study and research on cultural phenomena spread from the field of anthropology to other disciplines such as History, Literature, Geography, Political Science, Psychology, etc. many scholars began to adopt the definition of culture as practice.
Without practice the definition of culture as symbols and meanings greatly suffers, while the world of practice has to be undertaken through the symbols and meaning generated through the social dynamics.
Sewell has posited the definition of culture as “a dimension of social life, autonomous from such dimension both in logic and in its special configuration and as a system of symbols possessing a real but thin coherence that is continuously put at risk in practice and therefore subject to transformation.” I think that by synthesizing the two definitions as one Sewell has given us the best definition of culture.
The aim of this article is to begin to analyze Manipuri (mainly Meitei) culture beyond the UNESCO definition. The first category of definition is too general to be useful. To me, the third category is the most useful for the purpose of taking upon the world of culture.
With the third category of definition as our guide, I am enthusiastically inclined to adopt the methodology developed by Juri Lotman for studying and analyzing culture, Juri Lotman’s methodology approaches the scientific method to the nearest extent.
We must give due credit to Juri Lotman for attempting to find a typology of culture in the most scientific way. He connects the typology of culture with the nature of binarism (or bipolarism), which is an inevitable consequence of the left and right hemisphere principles of human thought. Juri Lotman has expounded experimentally several typologies based on binarism. Out of the several binary typologies, I have chosen the following as most significant and relevant for the study of Manipuri culture.
i) The first binary is that of cyclical-continual and linear-discrete culture. This binary indicates linear directionality and cyclical repetition. This binarism is the deepest essence of every culture, the specific relationship of these two opposites gives a specific character to each epoch.
The character of the cyclic activities in a culture seem to determine the way a society develops or not. The overwhelming calendric festivals in Meitei Society and the excessive rituals in Meitei family and the Leikais cannot but have inevitable effect (or impact) on the economic and political life of the society. What are the conditions of the leiraks, khong and pukhris in the leikais? Almost all the government and public institutions have failed. See the plight of the government retirees who suffer from the inordinate delay of their pension entitlements. In almost every work undertaken in Manipur, there is toxic delay everywhere. There are toxic symptoms in the spatial patterns in Manipur Society. By way of an example, the Takhelkhong, a historical khong (canal), which deserves to be preserved as a site of historical testament has been degraded and ruined beyond all recognition. If it is not preserved now, the Takhelkhong will be obliterated from Manipur’s history. And think over the fate of the Nambul turel and the Lamphelpat. These are not merely geographical names, they are also very much historical and cultural values. They must not be taken as merely utilitarian and thus disposable objects. Even more importance should be given to them than to cultural artifacts such as thumoks, polangs, khudeis, phaneks, leirum etc.
Today, the Manipuris (mainly Meiteis) should reinvigorate their culture regarding time, space and historical consciousness. In this respect, our ancestors achieved the high level of culture, which have been lost to the present generation of the Meiteis. In the past, there was a culture of maintaining and preserving public (social) or common space such as common grazing ground, common playground, common forest for collecting fire woods etc. In many places of the Manipur valley, most of the crisscrossing khongs, khongbals, thingels, patthabis and pukhris have disappeared.
The intensity and frequency of the rituals and calendric festivals coupled with strong emotional group-life and concentric outlook have caused the individuals of the society to concentrate only in group life (family, clan or crony) leading to ignorance or apathy to public or national values.
ii) The second binary is that of a culture oriented toward acquiring external information
and a culture oriented toward auto-communication. According to Juri Lotman, the first culture is more dynamic, whereas the second is able to develop greater intellectual activity. Of course, every society has both characteristics of culture. The question is that of which characteristic is in the dominant mode. The best examples of a culture oriented toward auto-communication are China under Mao-Ze-Dong and Iran recently when it was boycotted by the western nations.
The best examples of a culture oriented toward acquiring external information are Singapore and Japan in the 18th and 19th Century. China under Deng-Xiao-Ping transformed itself from the latter culture into the former. Manipur, although now inscribed within India, constituted as a political unit belongs to the first category but without the dynamism mentioned by Juri Lotman. In fact, Manipur is inflicted with a communication disorder. This is shown succinctly in the failure of communication between the BJP and the Congress in the face of central government’s role in the Manipur crisis caused by the Kuki expansionism and violence. In fact, communication disorder is very much a burden of the BJP unit of Manipur as seen in the inability of the unit in electing the Chief Minister of Manipur.
iii) The third binary is that of pre-literate and literate culture. The way in which culture develops historically is as Myth to Logos. Logos, which is a Greek Word, is the appeal to reason or reason as the guiding principle of the world. I am detailing the axiom as follows:-
a) Mythology – Literature.
b) Mythology – History.
c) Mythology – Philosophy.
Pre-literate culture is characterized by mythological consciousness. Orality is the mode of expression at this stage. Mythology is a stage of continuation and literature is creative activity.
Another natural progress once literature is distinguished is the possibility of historical record-keeping and writing of history. Oral memory is extremely unreliable. People will inevitably forget parts or links of the events or phenomena which they have witnessed and they will fill up the gaps in the story with the help of imagination. Thus, real events will be metamorphosed into myths. But with the emergence of writing, literature and history came into existence by differentiating myth from reality.
Meanwhile, humankind ceaselessly worked to survive and live, and was gaining practical skills and practical knowledge. Man began to find out incongruities between practical knowledge and the myths they internalized in his mind. Man was led to think and argue about the incongruities between practical knowledge and his myths and thus, philosophy came into being in the world. Philosophy teaches us to think rationally and systematically.
In this context, the puyas of the Meitei have a high value. Numit Kappa, Langon, Pombi-Lang, Leithak-Leikharol, Toreirol Lambuba, Tutenglon etc. are so valuable and stand as the beacon of Manipuri civilization precisely because of these intellectual treasure. The performative arts and the rituals (both religious and non-religious) are only a small aspect of culture. But the puyas place the Meiteis on a higher pedestal of culture, that is, civilization proper.
The puyas are the symbols of the transition from Myth to Logos. The Meiteis are a strong civilization because of the puyas. But it is very unfortunate that very few persons realize this all-important fact. It is worthwhile to note that there are extremely few persons who can read the puyas. But there are so many persons who can dance and sing. This is a diminution of the cognitive-intellectual aspects of culture. There are many Master Degrees holders in Manipuri language, who cannot read the puyas, which is indeed pathetic and disappointing. The situation is very serious for Manipuri culture. When the puyas were burnt, many duplicate copies were hidden and saved. Now, many of these puyas are available in print. The real tragedy will be when there is no one able to read them and the fate of the puyas will be like the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Unless there is a special study of puyas, there is no way to understand them. Specialization in puyas should be immediately opened in M.A. course in Manipuri in the Manipur University, Imphal and the Assam University, Silchar.
(To these binaries which Juri Lotman has brought out, I am motivated to add another binary from a quiet, unknown and unexpected corner of Africa. This binary has been taken from the article ‘The Myth of Neo-colonialism’ written by Tunde Obadina, Director of Africa Business Information Services.)
iv) The fourth binary is that of pre-industrial culture and the industrial civilization.
Tunde Obadina has rightly pointed out that modernization is not only technological achievement, but also a cultural phenomenon. He has also alluded, that it is impossible for a pre-industrial culture to create and sustain an industrial civilization. I am obliged to say that this theme requires a deeper elaboration.
Today, Manipur is experiencing an era of economic breakdown, political turmoil and moral degradation. Now, the question is: is the aesthetic orientation helping the creative development of economic and political energy or not? To what extent culture is involved in the political turmoil, economic stagnation and moral degradation of the present stage of history? In what way culture has to be reformed in order to create space for economic progress and political catharsis?
In this historical era in which the BJP dominance exists, a vivid picture of political dependency and the unworthiness of the electoral politicians is seen. Economic dependency, which was a consequence of the systematic policy of the British paramountcy to destroy Manipur’s minor industries and agriculture, has worsened during recent years. What role has Manipuri culture to take in this critical area?
The ethical failure in Manipur must be observed and addressed on a priority basis. Manipuri culture must be oriented toward this aspect. Every society must be developed in aesthetics and ethics. Ethics must not be ignored. There is no question of aesthetics versus ethics. Both are equally necessary in the development of a society.
Besides, the ethical aspect, the cognitive-intellectual aspect needs to be explored in Manipuri culture. Whether we look at the social movements launched by the CSOs in Manipur or at the crucial election time, it is widely observed that the general people are swept by temporary emotion. This emotional surge often disrupts the logical or lexical-discrete thinking of the participants. This disruption of the cognitive- intellectual faculty has resulted in many critical situations in Manipur.
In conclusion, the following are reiterated as the most salient points of this paper.
i) The puyas should be recognized as the highest form of Manipuri culture.
ii) The historical and cultural importance of the khongs, khongbals, thingels, pats, and pukhris should be recognized and should be preserved.
iii) The role of Manipuri culture to solve the present economic and political crises of Manipur should be inquired and sought out.
iv) There are ethical failure and cognitive-intellectual failure in Manipuri society. In what way Manipuri culture tackles this problem will be significant in Manipur’s progress and transformation.
The writer is Secretary General, Janneta Irawat Admirer and Research Centre, Imphal
