Colonial Policy and Practice in Manipur – Part 2 (last)

As a mark of respect to his invaluable contribution to the understanding of Manipur’s history, we are reproducing this article by the venerated academician and political leader, (the late) Prof. Gangmumei Kamei. As the full article runs into 12,000 words, we are carrying it in two parts.

 

First Women’s Movement of 1904: 

The colonial economic policy brought financial difficulties on the inhabitants of the valley. It was thought that the abolition of Lallup would bring some relief in terms of freedom from forced labour. Political Agent Maxwell just after the war called up former members of the Manipur army and they were constituted in to a labour corps. They were engaged in carrying supplies to the British forces on the Kohima road. They were also engaged in the maintenance of Imphal-Mao cart road. There was great resentment towards the employment of forced labour. As noted in the previous paragraph there was disaffection among the Rajkumars of the state. They were also not happy over the selection of the new Raja. They were also against the policy of disarming the population of the country. This was regarded as a policy of blatant oppression. The British imposed a fine on the state. The people were not used to payment of house taxes both in the valley and hill. The British Government introduced a new policy of export and import. Outwardly the British encouraged free trade in the state, however in reality they gave the monopoly of external or export trade to the few merchants from Marwar who were known as Marwaris or Kanias. The frustration of the people after 14 years of direct British rule bursted out in a movement which is popularly known in history of Manipur as first women’s war. Some incidents preceded the outbreak. On 6th July 1904 the Khwairamband market known as the Sanakeithel was burnt down; 28 market sheds which could accommodate 3,000 women vendors were destroyed and on 15th July 1904 again the Bungalows of Captain Nuttal the tutor to the Raja Churachand Singh and Mr. Dunlop the Assistant Political Agent were destroyed by fire. There was also another fire in the night of 4th August 1904, the authorities discovered a stick with an oil rag attached to it. Colonel Maxwell attributed the burning of this bungalow to the acts of incendiarism on the part of the Manipuri inhabitants of the town instigated by the ‘Rajkumars’ or the descendents of the late ruling house as a symbol of their dislike for and a protest against the ruler who had been imposed on them. Maxwell as a Superintendent of the state issued an order to rebuild the bungalows of the British officials. He also asked the people of Imphal area to construct the bungalows with teak wood from the Kabaw valley of Burma. If the people declined he would threaten to impose punitive force on them. The order of Superintendent Maxwell created a great consternation among the people. It was a temporary ‘resuscitation’ of Lallup on the urban people of Imphal. In the beginning the people did not have the courage to confront the order as they were demoralized by the impact of the war. On behalf of the people of Imphal areas an application was submitted to the Political Agent and the application was signed by one Chingsabam Natek Singh of Sagolband. It was rejected by Political Agent Maxwell. Political Agent Maxwell entertained a prejudice against the Rajkumar families. He made derogatory remark on the Rajkumars. He wrote, “Rajkumar, very rarely works, his rank in most instances is sufficient inducement to the girls of the country to marry him and as he generally takes more wives than one and the women of Manipur are the bread winners of the family, he leads a life of indolence varied by grotesque acts of conceit in excess even of the attempt of the frog in the fable to expand herself in to the size of an ox…”¹⁵.

A protest meeting was convened for all the people of Imphal. The Superintendent imposed that assembly of more than five persons was unlawful and such a public meeting if held he would employ troops to disperse the meeting. Despite the strict warning of the authority a big meeting was organized on 30th September 1904 near the Cheirap Court. A big crowd of 5000 attended the meeting. The authorities disbursed the assembly and arrested six leaders who were presumed to be the leaders of the movement. They happened to be Rajkumars. A court of enquiry was constituted to try the arrested persons from 4th November 1904 onwards. Political Agent Maxwell on 10th November 1904 sentenced the culprits for expulsion from Manipur.  The women folk of the state were shocked at the punishment of the six Rajkumars. The market women came out spontaneously and organized a big demonstration. They marched to the Residency and protested against the Political Agent’s action. The movement continued for several days resulting in to the closure of the markets affecting day to day life of the people. The movement was led by the market women leaders.The movement was against the reintroduction of lallup which was already abolished by the government of India. It was a wrong step taken by Political Agent. The order for reconstruction was withdrawn. Chief Commissioner J.B. Fuller expressed unhappiness over this incident arising out of action of Political Agent. Political Agent Maxwell was transferred from the Political Agency¹⁶.

Christian Missions in Manipur

An objective of the British India was ‘civilizing the Asiatics’ meaning the backward Indians. This mission was well expressed in the famous phrase of Rudyard Kipling, ‘White men’s burden’ to civilize the conquered people. An instrument of the civilizing mission was Christian proselytism. There was a symbiotic relation between colonial rule and the Christian mission. The colonial ruler utilized the services of the missionaries in the field of education, medical and social reforms to spread the colonial rule among the Indian population. The first attempt to establish Christian mission in Manipur was under taken as early as 1836 by the American Baptist Mission in Burma¹⁷. The mission failed.

After 1891, a condition was laid down by the British authorities that they would not interfere in to the traditional polity system, religious belief and cultural practices of the people. Political Agent Major H. Maxwell wanted to follow this policy of non interference in to the social and religious life of the Hindu Meiteis of the Manipur valley and so discouraged Christian mission activities among the Hindu Meiteis who regarded Christianity as a religion of the conquering white men. The first initiative for a Christian mission work in Manipur was taken up by one Robert Arthington, a illionaire of Leeds in England. He established the Arthington Aboriginese Mission Society. His aim was of a mobile missionary movement. Even before the founding of the mission society, on 15th September 1885 he wrote to the Assam Baptist Mission stating his desire to open a mission among the tribes. Arthington’s interest towards Assam was aroused by one missionary named John Dalmas who was a missionary in Assam. The Arthington Mission Society appointed young William Pettigrew to start Christian evangelism in the state of Manipur among the Meiteis. Pettigrew came to India in 1891 but the political instability as a result of the Anglo-Manipur war of 1891; he had to wait four years for permission to enter Manipur. Meanwhile he started learning Bengali and Manipuri language. In 1894 William Pettigrew approached A. Porteous the acting Political Agent in Manipur for the permission. In the absence of Political Agent Maxwell the permission was granted by A. Porteous and William Pettigrew started work on 6th February 1894 at Imphal. Pettigrew started to preach the gospel among them. Meanwhile Major Maxwell the Political Agent returned from his furlough and took an alarming view of the mission work and expressed his fear that trouble might arise in a protest from the Hindu Meiteis. Political Agent Maxwell knew the injunction made by the British Government of non-interference and strict neutrality in matters of religion. So Maxwell decided to maintain the status quo and serve the ultimatum that Pettigrew leave Imphal or stop his missionary work.

William Pettigrew was disappointed but Maxwell came to his rescue that he might work among the Tangkhul Nagas of north eastern hills of Manipur. Pettigrew established his mission at Ukhrul. He acted both as a missionary and unofficial state officer in the administration of the area. He kept close contact width the state officials at the capital. When Pettigrew was almost settled down he was recalled by the Arthington Society as he had completed three years. Pettigrew was not willing to return home and he applied to the American Baptist Missionary Union in Assam for help. In 1895 the Baptist Missionary Conference in Sibsagar seriously discussed the request of William Pettigrew. Accordingly Pettigrew was ordained as a missionary by the Sibsagar Baptist Church Assam which was endorsed by the executive committee of the American Baptist Mission in Boston in January, 1896.

William Pettigrew continued his work among the Tangkhul Nagas with great enthusiasm. The Government of Manipur did not allow the entry of more than one missionary in to the state. It appears from the report of William Pettigrew that the earlier years were dull and unpromising. However, he engaged himself in the construction of a mission bungalow, a school and study of local dialect i.e., Tangkhul and doing translation works. He hardly achieved anything substantial. He became quite conversant with the local dialects. He knew already Manipuri, he learned Tangkhul and Thadou. He asked his mission authorities to send another missionary to help him. But there was no response. During the visit of Viceroy, Lord Curzon to Manipur, he approached him to liberalize the policy on the number of missionary in Manipur. After the installation of Raja Churachand Singh and his Manipur State Durbar, Pettigrew renewed his request to the government.  But the Manipur State Durbar rejected his plea. However Raja Churachand Singh was not hostile towards the missionary and advised that there should be no obstacle to the missionary work among the hill people on the condition that they should not make an attempt to spread their work in the valley of Manipur.

Political Agent John Shakespeare supported William Pettigrew. He was appointed as Superintendent of the census of Manipur Hill Tribes in 1910 -11 because he was the only man who knew the dialects known to the hill tribes. Pettigrew did the census work successfully with the help of his school teachers and his senior students. Unfortunately it made him a suspect that he was a subordinate official of the state. Here we see the combination of the mission and colonial authority.

Another missionary U.M. Fox was sent to Ukhrul in 1911 and Pettigrew left for England on leave on 1912. Meanwhile the students of Pettigrew who were educated at the Ukhrul Mission School became of age. Both Naga and Kuki students were employed in mission work. We may mention the contribution of M.K. Miksha and T. Luikham among the Naga students. Through the efforts of Kuki converts particularly Lungkhovel Kom  and Teba Kilong. Christianity was spread among the western hills and Sadar hills. The local churches grew up in a large number. And the Manipur Christian Association was formed in 1917. The first convention of this association was held in Ukhrul in 1917. This period coincided with last two years of the World War I in which the Kukis revolted. The mission activities was greatly affected and suspended for some time. The mission station was shifted to Kohima and William Pettigrew moved to Gauhati.

During the Kuki Rebellion, J.H. Higgins President of the Manipur State Durbar organized a tribal labour corps for service in France. William Pettigrew was called out from Gauhati and helped organize the labour corps consisting of 2000 men of whom 1200 were from the Tangkhuls. After the war in recognition of the contribution made by the missionaries and Christian workers the government of Manipur granted a land for the new mission headquarters at Kangpokpi.

Watkin Roberts, the Welsh Missionary

History records that a missionary named Watkin Roberts from Mizo hills visited a Hmar village name Senvawn in response to the invitation of the chief of the village (Kamkholun). Watkin Roberts recruited native workers among the Christian converts and established Thadou-Kuki Pioneer Mission with head quarters at Senvawn. William Pettigrew was perhaps not happy with the establishment of new mission in South Manipur with head quarter at Senvawn.

Now the rivalry between American Baptist and Welsh Presbyterian were indulging in the mission politics. William Pettigrew who was a class mate of Political Agent Higgins tried to restrain the Presbyterian mission workers to enter Manipur. H.J. Higgins banned the entry of Presbyterian into Manipur. Meanwhile, Watkin Roberts changed the name of mission to North East India General Mission (NEIGM) in 1919. Unluckily Watkin Roberts was ousted from the NEIGM. He started a new mission called Indo-Burma Pioneer Mission. Therefore the supporters of Roberts’s new mission formed the Independent Church in April 1930. Political Agent Higgins issued an order on 22nd November, 1930 that prohibiting the Independent Church from holding any assembly or conference. After eleven years, Sir Robert Reid the Governor of Assam intervened on behalf of supporters of Watkin Roberts and Political agent C. Gimson on 11th April 1931 permitted the Independent Church to work in South Manipur.

Though the Manipur State Durbar did not permit Christian missionary work, the individual Christian families lived in the urban areas. The first Meitei Christian convert was A. Porom Singh, a student of William Pettigrew. However S.N. Parratt claimed that a Manipuri lady named Kaboklei related to the royalty was the first convert in Sylhet. The missionaries converted some individual tribals who lived in British Reserve Area at Imphal. However, in the colonial period, Christian missionary activities were not wide spread however it grew up at large scale in the post colonial period.

The Christian missions devoted to the establishment of primary schools; they published books mostly the Bible and other Biblical tracts, extended medical facilities, established churches in the villages and organized Christian solidarity organizations for the respective denominations and area wise associations. A Christian fraternity among the hill tribe was created. With the spread of western education the world view of the tribal was widened. They participated in the administration of the state. The colonial administrator as indicated by their involvement of the Christian missionaries in the state activities unwittingly showed the collusion between Christian mission and colonialism.

Rule of Raja Churachand Singh (1907-1941): The Manipur State Durbar

Selection of Churachand Singh as the Raja of Manipur by the British authorities was not welcomed by the people of Manipur. Churachand Singh was the son of Rajkumar Chaubi Yaima Singh who was a victim of prosecution by the past ruling house and Chaubi Yaima’s family were almost forgotten. Prince Chaubi Yaima was involved in the rebellion of Prince Bora Chaoba. The rebellion failed; he fled to Cachar and died in 1887 at the village of Lalang. Churachand Singh, a minor of five years at the time of selection as the Raja of Manipur was born on 14th April, 1885. As mentioned above after several consultations in which Political Agent Major Maxwell played a decisive role Churachand Singh was selected as a Raja. The following genealogical tree prepared by Major Maxwell and other astrologers showed his claim to the throne of Manipur ruled by Ningthouja dynasty.

The genealogical tree of Raja Churachand Singh (1885-1941)

Garibniwaz (1709-1748)

Ngoubram Shai (Senapati) 11th Son

Bhadra Singh (1825 King of Manipur during 7 years devastation)

Nara Singh (Regent and Maharaja of Manipur) (1833-1850)

Bhogendra Singh alias Bhubon

Chaubi Yaima (Sanayaima)

Four sons: Dumbra Singh, Dimb Singh, Chandrahas Singh and Churachand Singh (selected as the Raja)

The family of Churachand Singh was very poor. His father did not leave behind anything for the family. Chaubi Yaima left behind two wives, Lalitamanjuri and Nitrapati.  Luckily his mother Lalitmanjuri was the daughter of a leading noble of Moirang. He acted as a guardian of the sons and daughters of the two wives of Chaubi Yaima Singh.

Raja Churachand Singh was a child of destiny. After his selection as the Raja, the Political Agent provided enough funds for the maintenance of the Raja and his family of two mothers and eight children. The maternal grand father of Churachand Singh, Moirangthem Ramananda Singh was appointed as the Moirang Ningthou, Chief of Moirang by the Political Agent. The investiture of Churachand as the Raja of Manipur was performed on 29th April, 1892 in a grand function at the Polo Ground of the capital where the Political Agent Major Maxwell read out Sanad of the Government of India appointing him as the Raja of Manipur. During his minority, the Government of India appointed Major Maxwell as the Superintendent of the state of Manipur.

The British government of India made arrangement for the education of Raja Churachand Singh and his half brother Rajkumar Digendra Singh in Mayo College, Ajmer. This college was meant only for the royal princes of the princely states of India. The British intention was to train up Raja Churachand Singh as a ruler loyal to the British. Raja Churachand Singh was educated in Mayo College for 6 years (1885-1901). He was tolerably good in studies and was interested in sports; polo, hockey, football and cricket. While in Ajmer Churachand Singh came to know of other Rajput princes of the time. He received the medals awarded by several rulers of Rajputana.

After the completion of his education at Mayo College, Captain J.R. Nuttall of 44th Gurkha Rifles was appointed tutor to the Raja for 5 years till he came of age. In 1901 the government of India established the Imperial Cadet Corps (ICC) at Dehra Dun to give military training to the princes of native states.  Churachand Singh also joined the corps. He got training in warfare. Churachand Singh came out to Manipur in 1907. During his education days he used to have consultations with the Political Agents on the administration of Manipur.

Lord Curzon and Churachand Singh (1901)

In 1901 Lord Curzon, the British Viceroy visited Manipur. Churachand Singh as a minor did not participate in the administration. In a special Durbar, the British Political Agent introduced Raja Churachand Singh to Lord Curzon who gave a public reception to the young Raja.

Manipur was under the direct British rule for 16 years (1891-1906). It was the period of minority of Raja Churachand. At the age of 22, Raja Churachand Singh was handed over the administration of the state of Manipur by Sir Lancelot Haire, the Lieutenant Governor of Eastern Bengal and Assam on 15th May 1907. However, the administration of the hill areas was not entrusted to him. The Political Agent controlled the hills. A new Rule for the Management of Manipur state was announced. According to this law the Manipur State Durbar was created.

The Raja as the President of the Manipur State Durbar

Raja Churachand Singh was the President of the Manipur State Durbar. The Vice President was the Assistant Political Agent who belonged to the Indian Civil Service. There were other six members divided in to two categories; ordinary member and additional member. The Manipur State Durbar was a Council of ministers appointed by the British Government on the recommendation of the Raja and the Political Agent. Five members were appointed as the members of the first Durbar.

The Raja was responsible for the administration of the valley of Manipur. He was assisted by the Durbar. The decisions of the Durbar were to be approved by the Raja with the copies submitted to the Political Agent. The members of the Durbar acted de facto as ministers of the Raja. The Durbar also acted as a highest original and appellate court both civil and criminal. It could pass sentences including death, subject to confirmation by the Raja in the case of imprisonment of 5 years and above and by the Governor in case of death. The Raja had the powers of pardon in criminal cases and revisionary powers in both civil and criminal cases subject to the approval of the Political Agent.

In 1916 when the Raja vacated the position of the President of the Durbar, the PMSD or the President of the Manipur State Durbar looked after the administration of both the hills and valley. The PMSD looked after the fiscal administration of the state and prepared budget of the state. The Manipur State Durbar attracted a large number of educated Manipuris. It provided an administrative forum in which the educated persons could get political appointments and through them the state could get legitimacy or support of the people.

The Maharaja and the British Government

The British policy was that by education and training the new ruler of Manipur would appreciate their custom, language and traditional polity with full knowledge of the princely states of India and trust in the British Empire. Churachand Singh extended help to the British which confirmed the trust reposed on him. The Manipur Raja gave help to the British while dealing with the Abor Expedition in Eastern Himalayas (1911) and troubles in Sadiya. During the World War I (1914 -1919) Manipur Maharaja extended help to the British in form of Double Company of Manipuri soldiers, 2000 labour, ambulance and a war plane.

During the World War I the Kukis of Manipur revolted against the British and the King. It took one and half years of intensive military operation by the joint forces of Burma Military Police and Assam Rifles to suppress the Kuki rebellion (1917-1919). Raja Churachand Singh again extended the help to the British. The king himself participated in the operation against Dampi Kuki village for which he was given title of ‘Dampi Ngamba’ (conqueror of Dampi). The British were satisfied and announced the following relief for Manipur.  They reduced the amount of tribute; three hill sub divisions were created; the Imphal-Mao road was to be constructed by the British; and Raja Churachand Singh was given the title of Maharaja instead of Raja and C.B.E awarded to him. The other anti colonial movements before the outbreak of the Kuki Rebellion were a series of agitations for the abolition of pothang (force) labour and other obnoxious practices introduced by the Manipur State Durbar in the valley. After the Kuki Rebellion, there was the Naga Raj Movement led by Jadonang and Gaidinliu in the western hills of Manipur. Jadonang was executed and Gaidinliu was imprisoned for life by the British. The movement continued for several years in western hills of Manipur, southern Naga Hills and north Cachar hills.

Award of K.C.S.I (1934)

Viceroy Lord Irwin accompanied by Lady Irwin and his daughter Miss Anneewood visited Manipur. He was given a great reception by the Maharaja of Manipur. Lord Irwin was an intelligent British statesman. He described the state of Manipur as the ‘Switzerland of the east’. In 1934 the Maharaja was awarded the title of K.C.S.I. (Knight Commander of the Star of India). It was the climax of Maharaja Churachand’s rule.

Maharaja Churachand Singh was a patron of modern education and western sports in Manipur. He encouraged establishment of schools and provided scholarships to the bright Manipur students for education outside the state. They were educated at Gauhati, Sylhet, Dacca, Calcutta and Benaras. He regarded himself as a patron of Vaishnavism in Manipur. He presided over the Brahma Sabha consisting of many learned Brahmin scholars who were conversant with Hindu scriptures. He also tried to unite the Manipuris into a pan Manipuri forum known as Akhil Manipuri Hindu Maha Sabha to deal with the Manipuri national question. He also built up a fraternal relation with the hill tribes particularly, the Kabuis, the Tangkhuls and Kukis.

Difference between the Maharaja and the Colonial authorities

In his last days, the Maharaja faced troubles with the rising elite leadership. He fell out with the Nikhil Manipuri Maha Sabha. He utilized the services of the conservative and orthodox Brahma Sabha to collect religious fines on Hindu out castes. He had to deal with the women agitation of 1939 which was originally an agitation of market women against the policy of rice exports monopolized by the Marwari community which was converted to a demand for political reforms. The British were against introduction of democratic system in Manipur.

The greatest political upheaval faced by Maharaja Churachand Singh and British colonial authorities was this women agitation. The market women of Manipur initiated the protest movement which lasted 15 months. This protest movement is known in the history of Manipur as the ‘Great Second Women Agitation of Manipur’ popularly known as ‘Nupi Lan’ (Women’s War, 1939-40). It was an anti feudal, anti monopoly and anti colonial movement. The women agitation succeeded in banning the export of rice to outside Manipur but due to the intervention of Nikhil Manipuri Mahasabha particularly its popular leader Hijam Irabot Singh, it was converted into a movement for democratic reform. The agitation died down after the imprisonment of Irabot Singh in 1940 and outbreak of World War II which stopped all talks about constitutional reforms in Manipur.

The ailing Maharaja Sir Churachand Singh thought of abdicating the throne; he spent his last days in Nabadwip in Bengal. And his son Jubraj Bodhchandra Singh was appointed the succeeding Maharaja of Manipur in 1941. Maharaja Churachand Singh extended help to the British in the early years of the World War II but he could not do much due to his death at the age of 55 in November, 1941. His son Maharaja Bodhchandra Singh extended the needed help to the British and the allied powers during the great battle of Imphal of 1944. Maharaja Bodh Chandra’s assistance to the British was acknowledged by King Emperor George VI by the exemption of the annual tribute of Rs. 50,000/- payable to the British Empire. The British government also extended relief measures for the reconstruction of Manipur state. The British understood that there were political movements launched by different political parties particularly, the Manipur State Congress and Manipur Krishak Sabha for the introduction of responsible government in the state. Maharaja Bodh Chandra Singh who was a member of the Chamber of Indian Princes was advised by Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten and fellow princes to join the Dominion of India in the eventual declaration of independence of India. Advised by the Chamber of Princes, Maharaja Bodh Chandra signed two significant agreements namely, the Stand Still Agreement and the Instrument of Accession on 11th August, 1947. Thus 4 days before the declaration of independence of India, the Maharaja acceded the state of Manipur to the Dominion of India according to which he agreed to hand over subjects of defence, external affairs , finance including coinage and currency and communication. After the war, the British supported the Maharaja for the introduction of a constitutional monarchy in the state. The Maharaja promulgated two important laws for the state; the Manipur State Constitution Act 1947 and the Manipur Hill People Regulation 1947. Power was transferred by the British to the Maharaja Bodh Chandra Singh on 15th August, 1947. The British rule in Manipur lasted for 56 years; the policy they desire was put in to practice in the first phase of their rule. Their Indirect Rule both in the valley and in the hills was fraught with troubles. They brought British liberal ideas, European technology and western education which formed the basis of modernization of Manipur.

Footnotes:

1. The formulation is based on Gangmumei Kamei’s, “Colonialism and Colonial Policy” in Ethnicity and Social Change (An Anthology of essays) New Delhi, 2008. Further references are
2. John Hurd II was an American Professor of Oakland University. He wrote ‘the Economic Consequences of Indirect Rule in India’ which was published in the Indian Economic and Social History Review, 1975 Vol.2.
3. Ibid
4. Mrs Grimwoods’s book, “My Three Years in Manipur” and Mano Mohan Ghose’s “Did Manipuri Princes obtain a fair trial?” published in the same year 1891, further publicized action of Government of India and the justice of their policy.
5. The history of British Rule in Manipur is widely discussed by British historians in the colonial period; John Shakespeare’s, Manipur under direct British management (1907) and Robert Reid’s History of Areas bordering Assam (Chapter on Manipur), 1942. B.C. Allen District Gazetter of Naga Hills and Manipur (1905).
6. Reproduced in Kh. Sarojini Devi, Political Agency in Manipur 1835-1947, 2005, Imphal pp. 116-124 as appendix X, Administrative Report of Manipur Political Agency 1892-93, Shillong, and John Shakespeare, Manipur under British Management 1891-1907, Shillong, 1907.
7. Lal Dena, Anomalies of the British colonial policy towards Manipur in the Modern History of Manipur, 1991, Imphal 8. Kh. Sarojini Devi, op cit, pp 116; N. Joykumar Singh, Colonialism to democracy: A History of Manipur 1819 to 1972 pp 100-105; L. Gopal Singh, A History of Manipur Police, 1986, Imphal
8. John Shakespeare, op cit pp. 3, N. Joykumar Singh, op cit, pp. 104 10. A History of Manipur Police (1891-1972) published by Manipur State Archives, 1993, Imphal pp. 15-16.
9. B.C. Allen 1905 Gazetteer of Naga Hills and Manipur, Reprinted by Mittal Publication, New Delhi in 2002 pp.120.
10. Sir Robert Reid, History of the Frontier Areas Bordering on Assam from 1883-1941 Shillong 1942 pp. 79
11. Pronouncement reproduced in Robert Reid op cit, pp 83-84, and Report of the Administration of Manipur state- 1919-20.
12. Quoted in Robert Reid op cit pp. 87-89
13. Order No. D of the Political Agency Manipur, dated 20th September 1904 quoted in N. Joykumar Singh opcit pp. 115.
14. M.K. Binodini Devi, Bora Saab Ongbi Sanatombi was a historical novel dealing with the romantic life of Colonel Maxwell and princess Sanatombi daughter of ex-Maharaja Surchandra Singh.
15. V.H. Sword, Baptist in Assam: A century of Missionary Service, 1836-1936, Illinois 1935 pp.116 quoted in Lal Dena’s Christian Missions and Colonialism, 1988, Shillong

References: 

• S. Furnivall, Colonial Policy and Practice, London, 1948
• W. Evans (Ed), Methods and Principles of Colonial Administration, London, 1950
• Stranse-Hupe and Harry W. Hozard, Ideas of Colonialism, New York, 1958
• Rene Raunier, Sociology of Colonies, Vol.I, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1948
• Stephen Neill, Colonialism and Christian Mission, London, 1966
• B. Misra, Administrative History of India 1834-1947, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1970
• K. Sanahal Singh, Manipur Itihas, Imphal 1947
• Roy, History of Manipur, Calcutta 1958
• K. Jhalajit Singh, A Short History of Manipur, Imphal, 1965.
• Lokendra Singh, Unquiet Valley, 1998
• N Joykumar Singh, Colonialism to Democracy: A History of Manipur from 1819-1972, 2002
• Administrative reports of Manipur from 1891-1946
• Resolutions of the Manipur State Durbar (1907-1946)
• Lal Dena, Christian Missions and Colonialism, Shillong, 1986
• Luikham, A short history of Manipur Baptist Christian, Calcutta, 1948
• William Pettigrew, Twentyfive Years. 1897-1922, Ukhrul Mission School, 1922
• S. Downs, The Mighty Works of God, Gauhati, 1980
• Lal Dena (ed), William Pettigrew: A centenary tribute, published by Ashok Tipnis, Imphal, 1996
• Manimohan Singh, Christian Missionary Movement in Manipur, Imphal, 1990
• Gangmumei Kamei, Rajkumar Sanahal Singh, B.Com, Memorial Lecture, Maharaj Sir
• Churachand Singh (1891-1941) in Modern Period of Manipur History, organised by Manipuri
• Sahitya Parishad, Imphal, 2006
• Ningthougi chahi yangkhei subagi wari (Story of fifty years of the King) published on the
• occasion of Golden Jubilee celebration of Maharaj Sir Churachand Singh, Imphal, 1941.
• John Parratt, The Wounded Land: Politics and Identity in Modern Manipur, New Delhi, 2005. Parratt explained the British rule in Manipur as a combination of British colonialism, feudalism of Raja Churachand Singh and Brahminism of Manipuri Hindus.